Work–family balance has been documented in the literature1–3 to be an important retention factor for those individuals employed in the sport industry (eg, coaches, athletic trainers [ATs]). Capel1 reported the lack of personal and family time as a reason to leave the athletic training profession, a concern echoed by the findings of a Women in Athletic Training Committee survey.4 In examining retention factors among collegiate coaches and administrators, Pastore et al2 noted that they were more likely to remain in their current positions as a result of the fulfillment of work–family balance. Although the work–family interface has become increasingly popular among scholars, until recently, limited attention has been given to the construct for those professionals working within the sport industry.5–7

Researchers have begun to examine work–family conflict (WFC) within the coaching profession5–7; however, there is a modest amount of WFC within the athletic training profession.8–11 Furthermore, the occurrence of WFC has only been examined within the collegiate setting,8–11 and the findings may not be transferable to all clinical settings. At the initiation of this study (March 2009), 14.5% of all National Athletic Trainers' Association (NATA) members provided athletic training services to secondary schools either directly or through outreach programs, making it one of the larger clinical settings for employment.12 Additionally, the American Medical Association13 and the NATA14,15 have developed official and summary statements, respectively, that encourage all schools with sporting programs, including secondary schools, to have adequate athletic medical personnel (full-time ATs) on staff. Moreover, with states such as New Jersey promoting legislation to mandate onsite medical coverage by an AT, the number of ATs working in that clinical setting will only increase.13–15 Thus, investigating issues such as WFC that can negatively affect the professional role is warranted in the secondary school setting.

Long work hours have been documented as a primary contributing factor to the occurrence of WFC within several professions,16,17 including coaching6 and athletic training.8–10 Other factors, such as control over work schedules8,9 and flexibility in work schedules,5,7–9 have been identified as mediators for individuals managing their professional and personal lives. The work–family interface is complex, and scholars5,6 have suggested that it must be examined via a multilevel framework that includes organizational factors (eg, work hours, scheduling), individual factors (eg, personality, values), and sociocultural factors (eg, society views, gender roles). The purpose of our study, therefore, was twofold. First, we sought to explore the existence of WFC among ATs working in the secondary school setting and to identify those factors that contribute to their WFC in this setting. Second, we wanted to gain insight and understanding as to those factors that mitigate WFC in the secondary school setting. The following questions guided our investigation:

1. To what extent do ATs in the high school setting perceive WFC?

2. Is there a connection between the level of WFC and various demographic variables (eg, sex, marital status, family-unit size)?

3. Does the high school work environment influence the occurrence of WFC?

4. What factors are perceived to mitigate the occurrence of WFC?

METHODS

A sequential, explanatory, mixed-methods design18 with 2 phases was used for this study. This design allows the researchers to collect and analyze data quantitatively and then follow up with qualitative information to not only gain additional insight but also to confirm or disconfirm the study's findings.18 Phase I involved a cross-sectional survey of ATs in the secondary school setting to quantify their perceptions of WFC. Phase II involved collecting qualitative data from a purposeful sample of participants who completed phase I and served as a means to both confirm the phase I findings and investigate how ATs at the secondary level manage responsibilities in both their personal and professional lives. The study received institutional review board approval from Northern Illinois University and the University of Connecticut before data collection began.

Participants and Procedures

Phase I consisted of an online survey. The NATA Member Services Department provided a randomized list of 1325 e-mail addresses of secondary school NATA members whose primary work setting was secondary school; 1303 e-mails were deliverable. An initial e-mail invitation containing the survey Internet link was sent to these individuals. A total of 440 ATs (33.7%) volunteered to participate and accessed the online survey; of these, 415 surveys were usable for data analysis.

At the conclusion of the WFC survey, interested individuals were invited to participate in phase II of the study, which involved confidential telephone interviews related to experience with WFC. Participants interested in the qualitative aspect of the study were instructed to provide confidential contact information (phone number and preferred time of day to be reached) to members of the research team. Because more individuals were interested in phase II than could be included, participants were randomly selected; we used data saturation to guide the total number of participants. Selected individuals were contacted with a consent form; once we received the consent form, we scheduled a formal interview and conducted it using a semistructured interview guide (Appendix). Table 1 provides a breakdown of the participants' demographic data.

Table 1 Participants' Demographic Data (N = 415)

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Instrumentation

The online survey consisted of 2 sections. The first section contained 15 items pertaining to general demographic characteristics such as age, sex, years of experience, hours worked, and marital status. The second section contained two 5-item scales evaluating one's perceived level of WFC based upon current family status. Scale 1 defined family as having a partner or spouse with or without children; scale 2 defined family as those individuals, including parents, siblings, grandparents, and any other close relatives, involved in one's life. Participants had the option to answer one scale or both scales, depending upon their family situation.

The survey, which was developed and validated by Netemeyer et al19 and Mazerolle et al10 in separate population groups, is scored along a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The 5 WFC items (Table 2) have previously demonstrated adequate internal consistency with a Cronbach α of 0.88 for working professionals19 and of 0.89 for ATs.10 Each 5-item scale was summed to provide a measure of WFC. With the current data, our verification of the instrument's reliability revealed a Cronbach α of 0.954 for scale 1 (family defined as having a partner or spouse with or without children) and 0.937 for scale 2 (family defined as those individuals, including parents, siblings, grandparents, and any other close relatives, involved in one's life).

Table 2 Work–Family Conflict Measures^a

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The semistructured interview guide was based on the study's purpose and research questions, as well as preexisting literature on WFC in the athletic training profession8–11 and sport industry.5–7 All of the questions were constructed using the open-ended format to encourage reflection and discussion regarding the participant's experiences. We selected the semistructured format because it provided methodologic rigor but also allowed us flexibility in the event an unexpected theme emerged from data collection.20,21 Furthermore, when more than one researcher is involved in data collection, a semistructured interview format allows for consistency in collection methods as well as the production of reliable data.22 Before data collection, the interview guide was shared with 2 social science researchers to ensure the questions were appropriate and reflected our study's purpose. Feedback was digested by the researchers, and changes and edits were made to enhance the clarity and flow of the interview guide.

RESULTS

Of the respondents, 203 (48.9%) were women and 212 (51.1%) were men. The participants were 37 ± 9 years old with 13 ± 8 years of experience as ATs. The majority (60%, n = 248) had obtained a master's degree.

Those ATs with children comprised 231 (55.7%) of the participants in the study. Additional demographic information for those participants in phase I of our study can be found in Table 1. A total of 14 individuals (8 women, 6 men) participated in phase II of the study. Participants in phase II averaged 38 ± 9 years of age with 14 ± 8 years of experience as ATs. Comparable with phase I, 3 (21.4%) of the participants were single and 6 (42.8%) had master's degrees.

Mean WFC scores were 23.97 ± 7.78 for scale 1 (family defined as having a partner or spouse with or without children) and 23.17 ± 7.69 for scale 2 (family defined as those individuals, including parents, siblings, grandparents, and any other close relatives, involved in one's life), indicating a moderate level of WFC (Table 2). The most highly rated items in both scales were “The demands of my work interfere with my personal and family life” and “Due to work related duties, I have to make changes to my plans for family activities or miss out on family related activities.”

For scale 1, female participants' WFC scores were slightly lower (23.59 ± 7.69) than those of the males (24.25 ± 7.85). For scale 2, female participants' WFC scores were also slightly lower (22.67 ± 7.52) than those of the males (23.63 ± 7.82). However, we found no difference between males' and females' perceived level of WFC for either scale 1 (F_1,336 = .610, P = .435) or scale 2 (F_1,410 = 1.6, P = .207).

When comparing ATs with children to those without children, we identified no difference in either the scale 1 WFC scores (F_1,335 = 3.304, P = .07) or the scale 2 WFC scores (F_1,408 = 1.753, P = .186). Those with children, however, had slightly higher mean WFC scores for scale 1 (24.5 ± 7.7) than did those without children (22.91 ± 7.8). Similarly, those with children had slightly higher mean WFC scores for scale 2 (23.6 ± 7.71) than did those without children (22.58 ± 7.66).

We noted no difference in the scale 1 WFC scores (F_3,328 = .328, P = .805) or the scale 2 WFC scores (F_3,402 = 1.11, P = .345) among the various family situations (married or partnered; single, never married or partnered; living with significant other; divorced; not specified). Our correlation analysis revealed a weak positive relationship (r = 0.10) between number of children and level of WFC on scale 1 that approached significance (P = .065); the scale 2 correlation, however, was substantially weaker (r = 0.079).

An examination of scheduling flexibility revealed a difference (F_2,335 = 13.47, P ≤ .01) in scale 1 WFC scores. The Scheffe post hoc analysis demonstrated that those who always had scheduling flexibility had lower WFC scores (19.51) than did those who sometimes had scheduling flexibility (23.78) and those who never had scheduling flexibility (27.79). We also found a relationship between the average work hours per week and WFC scores on scale 1 (r = 0.294, P = .01) and scale 2 (r = 0.311, P = .01). Participants in phase I reported averaging 47.14 ± 14.3 hours of work per week.

Demographic information for those who participated in phase II, which involved in-depth interviews, is provided in Table 3. Our qualitative analysis revealed that managing WFC and balancing one's work life and personal life was associated with both organizational and personal dimensions (Figure). The following discussion describes each emergent dimension and its themes. Quotes are provided to support our findings, and pseudonyms are used to protect participant identity.

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Table 3 Interview Participants' Demographic Information

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DISCUSSION

The purpose of our study was to gain a better understanding of WFC within the secondary school setting. Specifically, we hoped to discover what factors, if any, lead to WFC for this group and what, if anything, can be done to improve life balance for the secondary school AT. Overall, we found that, as is the case for ATs in the collegiate setting, WFC can occur, but through support networks, which encompass work and home, a balanced lifestyle is feasible for the secondary school AT.

Regardless of sex, family situation, or number of children, participants in the current study experienced moderate levels of WFC. These results corroborate previous WFC research8 that found that ATs working in the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I setting experienced WFC regardless of sex or family status. However, this finding was not substantiated by previous studies24,25 on other working professionals. Those working professionals, particularly women with young children, experienced more WFC,24,25 yet for our group of ATs, those demographic factors were not an influence.

A multitude of factors could explain this finding, but the most logical centers on the age of the data. Much of the sex and family status data were collected in the 1990s and may not fully illustrate the current dynamic in the workplace or at home. Furthermore, the customary roles of breadwinner and homemaker are no longer associated with traditional gender roles; many males are beginning to assume more of a role in household duties, thus possibly explaining the lack of gender differences.26

The ATs in the current study who had more control over their work schedules reported less WFC than did those without that degree of control; this finding was verified by the qualitative data analysis. This result also authenticates the work of previous researchers,8 who noted that lack of scheduling flexibility and control over work schedule were contributing factors to WFC among both ATs and coaches working in the Division I setting.5–7 Distinct, however, from the collegiate setting, the secondary school setting appears to provide the AT with more flexibility and control. On many occasions, the phase II participants indicated that the flexibility afforded by the secondary school setting allowed them to meet personal and family responsibilities when necessary. This is consistent with organizational research7,10,27 demonstrating that providing flexible time to working professionals reduced experiences of WFC.

Mazerolle et al8 also found that the hours worked to address job responsibilities were an antecedent of WFC. Similarly, we identified a positive relationship between the hours worked per week and WFC scores. Hours per week addressing athletic training obligations was a key qualitative finding related to role conflict in a study28 examining role strain among dual-position ATs and physical educators in the secondary school setting. Moreover, Pitney et al28 found that hours worked per week in athletic training was the only predictor of total role strain. In a separate study investigating the professional commitment of the AT, Pitney29 showed that secondary school ATs took time to rejuvenate or handle the hours worked and made sure to take time away from their work-related responsibilities, indicating that hours worked had the potential to affect the ATs' quality of life or commitment to their positions.

The current study revealed how various aspects of the secondary school organization can mitigate perceived WFC. Participants explained that perceived support from administration and coaches was critical in balancing their work-related responsibilities and their personal lives. In most instances, the balance was achieved by modifying the work schedule, integrating family into the work context, or addressing staffing issues. In the sport context, Dixon and Sagas7 found that organizational support reduced WFC. Similarly, ATs working in the secondary school setting who had support from administration tended to have less perceived role strain.28 Participants in phase II of our study identified the support they received from the administration and coaches as rather “family friendly,” meaning that the ATs could integrate their families into the work setting and take time to address personal needs that arose. In a recent work–life balance study, Mazerolle30 identified integration as a strategy used by ATs working in the collegiate setting; integration has been suggested previously not only for the collegiate setting10,31 but also for other working professionals as a means by which to reduce WFC.26 These findings underscore the importance of an organizational support structure that values family-friendly policies as a way to reduce WFC.

Our participants discussed the need to create or maintain personal time so that they could take care of themselves or their families, or both. Setting boundaries to carve out time for oneself to limit the consuming nature of a particular professional role has been implicated as an important aspect of maintaining professional commitment29 and reducing role strain.28 In a study of professional commitment among ATs working in the secondary school setting,29 participants explained the necessity of having adequate time away from a role to care for oneself and emotionally recharge. Pitney et al28 found that ATs who proactively worked with administrators and coaches to make clear what they had time to do tended to perceive less role strain. Setting boundaries and prioritizing roles and responsibilities are often recommended by work–life scholars and experts32 and are easily accomplished by saying “no,” calling on coworkers, and applying integration.30 As in the collegiate setting, having a coworker (or several coworkers) with whom to share work responsibilities allowed the secondary school AT to achieve a balance and assume some control over the work schedule. Interestingly, however, the concept of integration, which has been previously recommended for the collegiate AT, took on a different meaning at the secondary school level. For the collegiate AT, integration meant taking the “down time” during the workday to exercise, do laundry, or spend time with a spouse. The secondary school level provided a more traditional family-friendly environment, allowing the AT to interact with his or her children while working. Regardless of the setting, establishing boundaries and priorities appears to allow the AT to achieve a balanced lifestyle.