Personal Food Systems of Male Collegiate Football Players: A Grounded Theory Investigation

Sampling Procedures

In purposeful sampling, the researcher intentionally selects individuals to study based on their ability to contribute to the development of the theory.41 The number of participants is not established as a number or percentage of the population before the start of the project.4647 Green et al48 recommended ensuring that the sample accurately reflects the ethnic background of the population, so that reported themes deepen the existing knowledge.

Participants

We purposefully sampled the participants for this study to determine the influences of ethnicity and playing position on the food choice theoretical model. Fifteen NCAA DII football players were interviewed. To ensure reasonable representation of player skills and sizes, the sample consisted of 2 kickers (1 punter, 1 place kicker), 4 quarterbacks, 3 defensive backs, 2 wide receivers, and 4 linemen. By class level, there were 4 sophomores, 9 juniors, and 2 seniors. For ethnic diversity, the athletes consisted of 10 whites, 3 Hispanics, and 2 African Americans.

Instrument and Protocol Development

Optimal interview questions are created based on the investigators' knowledge of what is missing in the literature and a plan for eliciting the best responses to the purpose statement and the research questions.44 Our questions (Table) were based on those from the Bisogni et al,1 Furst et al,2 and Smart and Bisogni5 studies. The interviewer used predetermined, semi-structured, open-ended questions3940 for more consistency in the interactions with participants.40

Table. Interview and Probe Questions

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Demographics were gathered for the participants, including ethnic background, position played, and year of eligibility. The questions were pilot tested with 5 athletes from an NCAA DII football program who were selected on the same basis as the study participants. After pilot testing, the questions were modified slightly to ensure effective data collection.

Circular Relationships in the Theoretical Model

The athlete can enter the cycle at any point and proceed around the circle clockwise, counterclockwise, or straight across. The athlete who enters the cycle at “Meal Themes” reported thinking of how to get a quick-fix food to decrease cooking time. Academic and athletic schedules were the 2 categories that most affected choices. The chosen quick-fix food also needed to be a food that met the definition of healthful. Healthful food choices needed to fit into a food-related decision process for determining where and when the food would be purchased and eaten. The participants thought they needed to eat well to be able to perform at their best. For participants in this study, eating well often meant avoiding fatty foods. For example, Darrick's definition was basic yet functional: “For me, being more healthy is not fast food and [is] stuff that has lower fat content.” Judd stated that he chose healthy foods because he had a family history of heart disease: “I have heart problems on both sides of my family, heart disease, heart attacks.”

Establishing routines facilitated the athlete's decision-making process about whether to eat in or go out and, if going out, whether to patronize a fast-food or sit-down restaurant. These decisions were balanced to maintain healthful food choices within the available time. The athletes considered the time frame for purchasing and preparing food in relation to academic and sport schedules. The routine of selecting food may be sufficiently established that athletes need not think about it in any detail. For instance, to maintain hydration, they take liquids with them as they leave to start the day of classes and sport activities.

The athletes all reported some type of hydration strategy.49–51 The hydration strategies were centered on monetary value. Although sport drinks were commonly consumed for their carbohydrate (and sometimes protein) content, they were also viewed as expensive. The athletes reported often looking for a cheaper brand rather than a specific nutrient content. Many football players indicated that their hydration strategy included drinking water when they awoke and carrying a water bottle, which they could refill freely at water fountains through the day.

Football athletes' planning and hydration behaviors may carry over to macronutrient selection. The participants easily identified lean meats, fruits, and vegetables as preferred choices. Mentions of these foods were generally prefaced by a statement about the importance of getting as much food for their dollar as possible. Many athletes shopped at large wholesale locations for cheaper canned goods. Monetary value was a common theme because the athletes in this NCAA DII school were responsible for their own food, except for meals provided by the university while they traveled.

Linear Relationships in the Theoretical Model

Relationships also existed straight across the cycle process. The athlete may enter the model at “Meal themes” and proceed straight to “Routines,” skipping the intermediate 3 categories if his habits are sufficiently entrenched. If the athlete enters at “Healthy food choices,” he may be influenced by both macro-nutrient selection and time constraints because of his next sport or academic event. Routines are an important strategy for keeping the athlete's nutrition goals in place.

Individual Components of the Food Choice Process Diagram

Time. Time as a commodity was the central category because it was easily related to all other categories52 and because the athletes' food choice process was most affected by time. They needed to obtain their own meals in accordance with their nutritional goal of healthful food choices while performing and maintaining their schedules in the academic and athletic realms. Athletes reported quick-fix meals as the best use of their time given their academic and athletic commitments.

Macronutrients. The athletes in this study were concerned primarily with consuming adequate protein.53 Building muscle mass to maintain a lean look was a consistent theme for ice hockey players.31 Protein is an essential nutrient for successful athletic performance.1854–56

Secondary to the replacement of protein was the replacement of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates provide an essential fuel source for working muscles.95758 In many instances, the athletes picked fruits, vegetables, rice, and pasta to fulfill their carbohydrate needs. Physically active people are more apt to choose fruits and vegetables than their counterparts who are not physically active.8

Healthy Food Choices. Athletes at the NCAA DII level are responsible for planning, purchasing, and preparing their own meals. Both our athletes and those studied by Smart and Bisogni5 identified foods they thought of as healthful. Even though athletes reported that healthful foods were more time consuming to prepare, they tried to obtain what they considered to be healthful choices when shopping for the week to come. Participants were busier at school and in season than at other times and thought that they had less time to choose and prepare healthful food.

The athletes noted that it was time consuming to eat properly. Food preparation was also a time-consuming process. Favored foods that were quick and easy to prepare included microwavable foods, open-and-eat or prepackaged foods, and fruit or granola bars.

Monetary Value. Athletes at the DII collegiate level of competition were primarily responsible for obtaining their own food. Getting the most food for their dollar emerged from the text data as a theme. Cory was described as the thriftiest member of his focus group. He was known to travel to a local discount grocery store to stock up on canned fruits and vegetables, which he saw as a better value than fresh fruits and vegetables.

Hydration strategies also depended on the financial situation. Jeff's plan for hydration included a monetary value theme. Many of the athletes liked to include sport drinks in their hydration strategy. They also noted that water was free at any drinking fountain, and water bottles could be refilled at any time of day.

Social Influences

The participants recognized the influence of their teammates on their nutritional strategies. Chad said, “The people around me have a pretty big influence, I would say. . . . I used to live with a guy who was kind of a health freak, so you were always eating really healthy foods.” Judd related that he did “not [eat out] on a regular basis. Every once in a while it would be with a teammate . . . and we would go out to eat but not on a regular basis.” Chad was influenced by someone he thought had specific nutritional knowledge, but he did not feel influenced by the general public.

Participants seldom ate with more than 3 or 4 teammates apart from the pregame or postgame meal. Football players tended to eat their meals with significant others or with roommates. Darrick stated, “I usually cook for my girlfriend instead of her cooking for me.” Although roommates were generally football players, they were not always in the same skill group. The athletes at the DII level indicated that they were responsible for their own food and reported spending more time planning, purchasing, and preparing food than the DI athletes.

Football players thought that only younger players might observe the food choices of upperclassmen. Jeff said, “I have had quite a bit of kids come up to me and ask what I eat and how I get so lean.” Judd noted, “As far as the younger players on the team, they pretty much might, you know, look up to me and see what kind of choices I make. Anyone who doesn't really pay attention, probably not.” Todd stated that he did not feel influenced by an observer. Christopher ate what he wanted whenever he wanted: “Simply what looks good to me at the time. I just eat whatever I want.”

Quick-Fix Foods

Quick-fix foods fit into the athletes' schedules better than did foods that needed time-intensive preparation. Almost all the athletes liked to cook when they had time. When their time was limited, they chose microwavable meals, foods that were ready to eat, and one-skillet dishes with meat added. They also ate meals in the locker room before practices to supplement their bodies' fuel sources. Some athletes noted that sandwiches, which were commonly mentioned as quick-fix foods, were a good way to meet all the criteria within their time constraints. The sandwich components could be adjusted to accommodate the athlete's taste preferences and needed fuel. More meat could be added during weight-training times, and more vegetables could be added to provide carbohydrates for practices.

Meal Themes. Meal themes emerged from the text data in the food choice process model. Meals were consumed 4 to 5 times per day, which sometimes resulted in a conflict with the academic schedule.52 Lunch was usually a quick meal on campus or a sandwich carried from home. Afternoon snacks were often eaten in the locker room to provide energy for the upcoming athletic endeavor. Compared with Smart and Bisogni's5 athletes, who ate most evening meals together as a team, our football players were more apt to eat alone or with one or two significant others during the entire semester.

The football players we studied tended to go back to their college home and eat meals with roommates. Meal components were often shared by those at the meal. For example, each person would be responsible for his own meat, but vegetables and other side dishes were shared. Judd indicated:

For supper we are kind of a different household, you could say, because we usually will sit down at the kitchen table and actually have supper together; instead of just having everyone parting their own way, we all go out and grill our food and somebody will be in charge of the vegetables or whatever, and we will eat it together as a family.”

Strategies varied widely. A few participants did not spend much time thinking about their food choices. Darrick stated that when he began college, he ate anything he wanted at mealtime and did not pay much attention to his food choices. Clint commented that Darrick was his freshman roommate and he made the most of the cafeteria plan: “I was with him as a freshman and he filled some pretty major plates.” At the other extreme were athletes who planned 1 meal every 2 hours, for a total of 5 or 6 meals per day. The players who planned ahead were also likely to shop for the week ahead. They would sometimes also cook for the week in order to create leftovers they could microwave as needed.

Planned Hydration. The athletes attempted to maintain adequate hydration levels by drinking water in addition to sport drinks. Consumption of sport drinks is a common component of sport nutrition.5359–61 The participants were also very aware of the need to stay hydrated, which may reflect a trend among athletes toward a better sense of the need for adequate hydration.596263 Ice hockey and football players generally reported conscious hydration plans,5 including keeping water bottles with them while in classes. Both sets of athletes reported avoiding carbonated soft drinks.

Collegiate athletes consume alcohol more often than collegiate nonathletes.6465 Compared with average college students,66 the ice hockey players reported consuming alcohol less often.5 Interestingly enough, these athletes did not report drinking alcohol very often; only 2 indicated that they drank alcohol at all.

Routines. Football players did not report eating out very often. They generally cooked for themselves with roommates or their girlfriends, and all stated that they enjoyed cooking and had good cooking skills. In a few instances, the players reported eating the evening meal together.

The athletes did report going together to a local sports bar for all-you-can-eat chicken wings. However, during “wing night,” they remained mindful of their nutritional goals.

Food-Related Decisions. For the football players in this study, healthful foods were primarily those that were high in protein, with carbohydrates a secondary consideration. Healthful foods are commonly described as foods high in protein and carbohydrate content.25727 Players at this university have limited access to certified nutritional specialists and athlete-specific food services. Therefore, they must choose foods more independently than athletes at some other institutions. The athletes in this study reported a good understanding of which foods provide which macronutrients.

Many participants in this study adapted their food choices when eating in the university cafeteria during their first few years. They were more likely to eat at sit-down restaurants than at fast-food establishments. The participants sometimes revealed they were overwhelmed with choices in the college cafeteria. A common theme during the freshman year was to eat as much as possible, although football athletes did not report being influenced by teammates' food decisions at meal time. In contrast, hockey players made additional trips to the food line if another player came to the table with “something that looked good.”5

Triangulation with the Existing Literature

Participants were asked about their ethnic backgrounds during demographic questioning. The researcher listened for ethnic references to foods or food specialties, but none emerged. There were also no specific references to family specialty or favorite foods. The players were focused on eating to compete and sought macronutrients and healthful foods.

Football athletes and ice hockey players had different definitions of healthful foods. Football players chose fruits, vegetables, lean beef, and chicken because they perceived these foods as more healthful. Ice hockey players identified healthful foods as those that were low in sugar and fat. Both teams recognized that soft drinks were poor choices because they contained calories without nutrients. Soft drinks were commonly replaced with fruit juices, water, or sport drinks. Both teams tended to avoid sweets while training. Finally, both teams reported that when they were traveling, their meals were ordered in advance, so the athletes had fewer food choices and did less active decision making than when at home.

The athletes' physical environment seemed to have minimal influences on their food choices. During meals provided by the university while the players were traveling to contests, the athletes made atypical food choices, a finding consistent with that of Smart and Bisogni.5 They generally had a breakfast buffet in the mornings, which allowed them more choices than a plated meal. Postgame meals were typically fast food or pizza. With the former, some athletes experienced stomach upset after the meal because they were not accustomed to eating that much fat.

Smart and Bisogni5 found that as athletes progressed through their years of eligibility, their food choice processes changed. Our football participants also changed their habits. During the freshman year, many ate as much as they could. After the freshman year, however, upperclassmen indicated that their food choice process was consistent in the sophomore, junior, and senior years. All were pursuing what they perceived as healthful food choices and were trying to establish food routines. The desired outcomes of the food choice process for NCAA DII football players were maintaining a comfortable playing weight and feeling healthier.

Implications for Practice

These DII football athletes appeared to have an understanding of proteins and carbohydrates. Conversations with athletes, led by nutrition practitioners or certified athletic trainers, can include more specific information about protein and carbohydrate needs. The players in this study did not pick complex carbohydrates by name, but they did choose complex carbohydrates in the form of fruits and vegetables. Assisting athletes in identifying and selecting other carbohydrates could be beneficial. The participants were concerned only about picking lowfat foods as a general practice and did not distinguish between saturated and unsaturated fats. None of the athletes indicated that they consumed fish high in unsaturated fats because they wanted to eat more unsaturated fats. The lack of differentiation may reflect a lack of awareness about the differences in fat molecules or the benefits of fats as a fuel source.

Lean meats were the typical protein choices. Educating athletes on meat selection and alternative protein sources could help to broaden their protein options. Many athletes planned, purchased, and prepared their own meals. Therefore, instructional offerings could include meal management, shopping tips, grocery store tours, menu planning, cooking demonstrations, and hands-on cooking programs.2371 Overall, these athletes have a basic knowledge of general nutrition, but professionals are in a position to communicate specific information about appropriate food choices.

Recommendations for Further Study

The development of theoretical models for athletes' food choices is a new field. To our knowledge, no authors have studied DIII athletes in any sport. Including the current study, only 2 models exist in NCAA DI and DII settings. Models for other sports could be explored.

No investigators have yet delved into the food choice processes for men's noncontact sports or weight-controlled sports (eg, wrestling). Similarly, female athletes' food choices have not been explored. Comparisons of dual men's and women's sports could be conducted. For example, the influencing factors for men's and women's basketball players may or may not be similar.

Men's and women's track athletes who participate as distance runners, sprinters, or field event athletes may have variable influences. Individual interactions within the models could also be investigated. Isolating one of the influences with the core category could reveal more specific themes related to how the athlete interacts with the food choice process. Finally, once a process has been identified, it could be further tested to determine changes in the athlete's choices as a result of the theoretical model. Qualitative projects are often used to develop surveys.394372 These results could be expanded into a survey to identify the athletes' aptitude in making food choices.

Limitations

The literature revealed several studies that established the food choice process in adults.12421 Only one study20 looked at freshman football players via a paper-and-pencil survey. One article,5 published in 2001, revealed the food choice process for NCAA DI ice hockey players. Using an NCAA DII institution may make comparison with DI athletes more challenging because DII athletes are typically responsible for their daily food choices.

Conducting interviews tends to be more personally interactive than a paper-and-pencil survey.394473 The face-to-face communication hinged on the assumption that the athletes gave truthful answers to the interview questions.5394042 There were occasions during the interviews when the scheduled athlete arrived for the appointment with another potential participant. The presence of another person may have influenced the participants' responses and may have further limited the results. The interviews were then conducted as a small group, with both participants being interviewed and their responses analyzed, which may have influenced some of the athletes' responses. Participation by the athletes was voluntary, and the athletes were free to withdraw from the study at any point.