Work-Family Conflict and Family Role Performance Among Collegiate Athletic Trainers

Research Design

We used a cross-sectional online survey via Qualtrics to gather data on collegiate ATs’ FRP and WFC. The scale items selected for this study have been established as valid, reliable questionnaires, and thus, none of the scales were modified. Additional demographic information collected included average work hours, National Athletic Trainers’ Association district, National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) division level, and years of certification. The WFC scale has been commonly used in the athletic training profession.^1,5,21 The FRP scale has been proven valid but not yet used in athletic training. Institutional review board approval was granted before recruitment and data collection.

Participants

We developed a list of all colleges and universities offering NCAA athletic programs (Division I [D1] = 351, D2 = 307, D3 = 442). With that list, we examined each sports medicine department directory to create a contact email list for all ATs employed in the collegiate setting. We emailed invitations to 6110 ATs employed in the collegiate setting during the fall of 2020, yielding 757 responses (12% response rate). Responses were reviewed for inclusion criteria (clinically working ≥50% of working hours) and completion of all sections of the survey, and 586 responses remained for data analysis (77% completion rate).

Instrumentation

The survey contained 3 main sections: (1) demographic information, (2) the WFC scale, and (3) the FRP scale. Validity scores for each scale are provided in Table 1. The demographic portion of the survey consisted of several categories: age, sex, ethnicity, marital status, district affiliation, and school division. Questions were also included about the organizational structure of the AT’s setting, employment status, number of additional ATs, and department model.

Table 1 Validity of Survey Scales, α

View Fullscreen

Work-Family Conflict

Work-family conflict was measured via an 18-item questionnaire that addresses time-based, strain-based, and behavior-based conflict.²² The scale also includes 2 subcomponents that measure the bidirectional nature of the conflict: work interfering with family and family interfering with work conflict. Participants are asked to rate the WFC scale items on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5= strongly agree). The scores are summed to create a total score; a higher cumulative score on the scale indicates a higher level of WFC. The range of the WFC scale is 18 to 90. Sample items from the validated scale are “The time I must devote to my job keeps me from participating equally in household responsibilities and activities,” “I am often so emotionally drained when I get home from work that it prevents me from contributing to my family,” and “The problem-solving behaviors I use in my job are not effective in resolving problems at home.”

Family Role Performance

The FRP scale developed and validated by Chen et al²⁰ was used to better understand an AT’s level of involvement in the family domain. The scale consists of 2 subscales: task-oriented (4 items) and relationship-oriented (4 items) FRP for a total of 8 questions. Respondents are asked to rate the extent to which they fulfill family responsibilities. All scale items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale: 1 = did not fulfill expectations to 5 = fulfilled expectations completely. The FRP scale range is 8 to 40. We found the scale to be reliable in the current population (α = 0.887). Sample items are “Completed household responsibilities” (task) and “Provided emotional support to my family members” (relationship).

Data-Collection Procedures

We sent all potential recruits an invitation email outlining the study’s purpose, requirements for participation, and the link to the survey (Qualtrics). Participants read the terms of the survey and consented to the study before continuing to the survey questions. After agreeing to be involved, individuals were asked 2 screening questions: (1) Do at least 50% of your job responsibilities involve practicing clinically as an athletic trainer? and (2) Are you currently employed in the collegiate setting? We included these specific questions to ensure that the research aims could be met, as our focus was on the collegiate ATs who provide direct medical and patient care. Participants who did not qualify for the study were directed to the end of the survey and thanked for their time. Those who qualified then began the survey. Our initial email was sent in the fall of 2020, with 1-week and 3-week reminders. Once all data collection was completed, the data were uploaded to SPSS (version 24.0; IBM Corp) on a secure, private platform to protect the confidentiality of the participants.

Data Analysis

The a priori level was set at P = .05 before data analysis. The demographic data were reported via means, frequencies, SDs, and percentages. Similarly, the WFC and FRP scores were described using means and SDs. Data collected in this study were nonparametric.

We analyzed the WFC and FRP scale results using the total scores; the subscale findings were not analyzed in this study. Mann-Whitney U tests were conducted to determine any differences in WFC and FRP scores for female versus male collegiate ATs and for those with versus those without children. We calculated a Spearman test to learn if the FRP and WFC scores were correlated. Lastly, a linear regression analysis was performed to identify if the FRP score predicted the WFC score.

The WFC and FRP Scores

The average scores were 28.19 ± 6.01 on the FRP scale and 45.86 ± 11.55 on the WFC scale. Reported hours per week worked in season were 60.00 ± 11.80 by male ATs and 58.90 ± 11.80 by female ATs, indicating no difference (P = .309).

Gender and WFC and FRP Scores

The WFC scores differed by gender (U = 344 667, P = .021). Female ATs described lower levels of WFC (45.09 ± 11.23) than male ATs (47.12 ± 12.00), disproving our first hypothesis.

On the FRP scale, female ATs scored 28.27 ± 6.06 versus 28.09 ± 6.00 for the male ATs, reflecting no difference. Therefore, we rejected our second hypothesis.

Predicting the WFC Score From the FRP Score

The FRP score was moderately negatively correlated with the WFC score (rs[584] = −0.497, P < .001). The FRP score predicted the WFC score (b = 72.02, t₅₈₂ = −13.30, P = .001). A significant regression equation was generated (F₁₅₈₃ = 177.24), with an R² of 0.233, and FRP total score was used to predict WFC total score. These results confirmed our third hypothesis.

The WFC and FRP Scores and Marital and Family Status

Athletic trainers with children had an FRP score of 28.91 ± 5.57 compared with 27.82 ± 6.19 for those without children. No difference (P = .069) was found, refuting our fourth hypothesis.

Collegiate ATs who were married reported a higher mean WFC score (47.20 ± 11.92) than those who were not married (43.48 ± 11.78). We concluded that married ATs had higher WFC scores (U = 19 847.00, P = .003) than those who were not married. Hypothesis 5 was confirmed.

Collegiate ATs with children had a higher WFC score (48.16 ± 12.44) than those without children (44.68 ± 10.90). The scores were different (U = 32 096.00, P = .001), and hypothesis 6 was endorsed.

Gender, WFC, and FRP

Despite anecdotal reports that women were more prone to WFC, little evidence has shown that women experienced more conflict than men.²⁶ Yet women identified feelings of guilt, burnout, and conflict while working in the collegiate setting, due in large part to their personal belief systems, which created an internal struggle to be available for both their professional and personal lives without sacrificing either role.^3,13,27,28 We postulated that female ATs would encounter more conflict working in the collegiate setting, but in fact, men expressed more conflict in our sample. This is the first time, to our knowledge, that researchers have reported these gender differences, as well as that men and women worked comparable hours per week. We believe this finding is powerful, as it demonstrates a possible shift in societal and individual expectations related to a father’s role within the family domain. Or perhaps the COVID-19 pandemic influenced men’s experiences of WFC. We did not analyze ATs’ positions, but based on a prior investigation,² male ATs have historically held higher-level positions in the work setting than their female counterparts. This difference, too, may contribute to a higher level of WFC for men if their work demands are greater despite similar work hours.

In one study, Naugle et al¹³ determined that men worked more hours than women, unlike in our sample, whereas women reported higher levels of burnout. We found no differences in hours worked or FRP scores between male and female ATs; yet males endorsed higher levels of WFC. This result contrasts with the athletic training literature that dates back to 2008,⁵ when no differences were present between men and women in their WFC scores. Drawing on societal classifications of gender roles, we note that men often identify as the breadwinner and, thus, although they want to participate in family life, they are less affected when unable to attend to family obligations.^29,30 Perhaps our outcomes showcase the shift in gender roles and values placed on parenting while working. Our data were collected during the COVID-19 pandemic, so our results feasibly speak to the effect the pandemic may have had on our sample’s experiences with WFC. This shift in experiences of WFC for men requires more research. Our male and female participants exhibited comparable FRP, which indicates that both men and women were involved in family or home life. That balance could explain the lower levels of WFC experienced by our female ATs due to an increase in spousal support.¹²

Stereotypically, women have been idealized as the caretakers of the family, so we were surprised that men and women did not differ in FRP.²⁹ This finding indicates that men are taking on more responsibility at home and have a true desire to participate in the family role. Cinamon and Rich³¹ developed a profile of the working professional, suggesting 3 distinct groups: (1) dual profile, with the individual placing equal importance on work and family roles; (2) work profile, with the individual placing higher emphasis on the work role; and (3) family profile, with the individual attributing greater importance to the family role. Drawing upon this model, we propose here that ATs fit the dual profile and experience WFC because they find value in and place importance on both roles equally. Supporting this supposition, Singe et al³² highlighted the experiences of ATs who were working full time and balancing parenting duties; they struggled with work-family guilt and WFC due to placing high value on both roles.

Our results also support the reprioritizing of family time for men and redefined attitudes about the gender roles society considers to be fulfilled by men versus women. Despite still serving as breadwinners for their families, more men are participating in household chores, parenting, and caring for their families than 30 years ago.³³ We recognize that additional research is warranted, particularly through a qualitative lens that explores why our sample of men experienced greater levels of conflict, as this was not fully expected as a finding or explained by our results.

Marriage, Family, and WFC

Gender, employment setting, and marital status often do not predict experiences of WFC, but those ATs with children described more struggles and conflict than those without children.^3,5,26,34,35 Our ATs with children expressed more WFC than those without. Thus, parenting responsibilities are demanding and, when coupled with working in the collegiate setting, can lead to higher levels of WFC. Recent investigators³² observed that ATs working clinically experienced guilt and WFC due to their parenting roles and full-time jobs. The time demands of both parenting and athletic training are incongruent, as they do not allow the AT to spend enough time parenting due to the demands of the collegiate setting. However, among our participants, ATs who were married also felt greater levels of conflict than those who were single or unmarried. Before this study, researchers^5,26,36 had not found differences between married and unmarried ATs. This information implies that, for our sample, marriage did create greater levels of WFC, which has several implications but foremost that our ATs perceived conflicts as likely because of the limited time available to spend with their spouses. We know that high work demands, like those experienced by ATs, strain personal relationships, as they often come at the expense of these relationships.

For the AT who is married and working full time, devoting the necessary time and energy to develop and maintain quality relationships can be challenging and lead to conflicts. Moreover, our results illustrated that ATs wanted to engage in the family domain (eg, chores, parenting, and care of family members), and when this involvement was reduced, conflict occurred. Until our study, wanting to be engaged more in the family or personal domain was thought to be important to the AT and a basis for conflicts. Now we understand that family values, an individual factor in the work-life balance paradigm, influence experiences of WFC for the AT.^3,37 This also demonstrates that ATs want an adaptive lifestyle in which they can engage in paid work but also contribute to their family and home lives.³⁸ Although originally a theory rooted in the feminist framework, it appears to now describe individuals overall with respect to their preference for an overall lifestyle. An adaptive lifestyle places value on both work and family and suggests that they are equally important to the person.³¹

Future Direction and Limitations

Our sample consisted of ATs in collegiate settings offering NCAA division athletics, meaning that these results may be applicable only to those ATs employed in the NCAA D1 through D3 setting and not to those outside this setting (eg, National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics, high school, or professional sports). Regarding family values, it is also important to acknowledge the differences in family roles and values that persist across different cultures and not just those between genders.

We collected data during the COVID-19 pandemic, which could have affected the results. Future authors should examine the same constructs to see if perhaps the COVID-19 pandemic did influence our findings. During the first 6 months, parents and working professionals were forced to balance working from home and online schooling, which certainly might have affected the outcomes. These results could help us learn effective ways to manage work and family and life roles.

Future researchers should explore WFC and family role values in other common athletic training environments outside the demographics of this study, including the professional sports and high school settings. Evaluating ATs in these other settings can provide a broader perspective as to family roles and professional identity and how they interact in experiences of WFC for ATs. Lastly, we used a cross-sectional online survey, meaning that the results reflect those who chose to respond at that time and not necessarily all collegiate ATs all the time. For the future, investigators should take a more in-depth approach, such as a longitudinal method, to look at the WFC and FRP experiences of collegiate ATs over time as responsibilities at work and at home change.